Creating Academic and Professional Success Essay - 1

Creating Academic and Professional Success - Essay Example A team is a collection of individuals that have unique talents and expertise. As a team they are able to exploit and share the knowledge that they possess. A team is able to assign a task to the most applicable member of the team and in doing so it makes the most advantageous use of their resources. This also allows the team members some flexibility in their role as a team member. In addition, the team allows management to assign workflow as needed. Teams can be assembled for a short period of time on an as needed basis. Teams also have the advantage of sharing a common goal. When the group shares the common goal, all work and resources are devoted to reaching the goal. This reduces redundancy and ambiguity among the workforce and makes the best use of their time. It further allows the team to direct their attention to complex problem solving as a group that an individual may not be able to accomplish. This interjects more creativity and flexibility into the workflow process. While there are many advantages, it must be remembered that teams must have the appropriate communication skills to be able to take advantage of the team structure. When using a team for decision making, the group may be guided by group-think or extreme positions advocated by powerful members. This is a major challenge to overcome to assure all team members have an equal input. Another challenge to a team is the acceptance, by its members, that responsibility and rewards are shared equally. This may face difficulties in introducing the team concept where the organizational culture is ingrained with a task oriented and individual concept. The team may have loafers that assume they can slack off and spread the responsibility out among the other members. Miscommunication or cultural differences that are misunderstood can also challenge the team. The team will be challenged to work to overcome these problems as the team matures. For Chris to deal with stress

Manus for example refuses to speak Essay Example for Free

Manus for example refuses to speak Essay The opening movement can be referred to as the gathering where the characters are introduced to the audience9. It is evident that the sequence in which Friel presents the characters to the audience on stage is significant. Primarily, an obvious observation to make would be the entrance of the Irish community to the stage, followed by the English. However, the entrance of the Irish community to the stage alone is equally important, appropriately starting with Manus, Sarah and Jimmy Jack. These characters are the least accepting of Englands colonialism, and refuse to acknowledge the inevitable changes (Manus for example refuses to speak English. ). It is quite fitting therefore that Owen is the last Irish member to enter the stage; for he has not only embraced the unavoidable changes, but he has joined forces with the English to enforce them. Unlike his brother Hugh, and the other Irish members, he fails to appreciate that the roots of the Irish culture are masked in language. Friel also has additional reasoning for such a pattern of entrance. Hughs entrance following his attendance at the baptism of Nellie Ruadhs baby for example enhances the importance of naming in the play. I strongly agree with the critic Leon Litvack who stresses It is not so much the naming and the changing of names, but what that signifies and what those names signify in a particular context10. In the second and third acts there is celebration and breakdown together. Effectively, Friel contrasts the first two celebratory acts with the final act of breakdown, to represent the scattering of the Irish people and the collapse of the Irish culture. Hughs return from the christening of Nellie Ruadhs baby in Act one and his return from the babys wake in Act three symbolises simultaneously Britains colonialism of Ireland, and the death of the Irish language. Baile Beag can be perceived in Translations as a microcosm of Ireland11. In a similar way, one could thus support the view that the desire of the English to make a map is itself a microcosm Englands desire to colonise Ireland. Therefore, Friel uses this to represent how the roots of the Irish culture are destroyed, through the destruction of Irelands place names. Lanceys blinkered statement that a map is a representation on paper reinforces this viewpoint. However, I disagree with critics such as Andrews who over historicize the play, claiming that Friel attempted to portray the map as an extreme act of colonialism. In order to correct Friels so called historical errors Andrews claims that the map was much more of a civil measure, rather than an oppressive military act. In support of Friels own words that the play has to do with language and language only it is important to highlight the relationship between names and identity. Friel maintains that names, culture and relationships (embodied in language), establish identity. He supports this theory through the character of Sarah, a girl with speech difficulties, silenced by the colonisers she knows she cannot. She closes her mouth. Her head goes down. In contrast to this, in A Passage to India Forster suggests that identity is found on a more spiritual level, and is only masked by names, culture and relationships. Ironically, while Forster focuses on the complexity of three different religions, places and seasons to emphasise the importance of the individual, Friel adopts the small hedge school of Baile Beag, and the personal relationships within the school to stress the significance of language on a larger scale, and its importance when considering Irelands loss of identity through colonisation. In A Passage to India Forster questions the importance of language, relationships and culture, illustrating the significance of the spiritual understanding of the individual. Forster achieves this primarily through the character of Mrs Moore, and the spirituality of Hinduism. However, the issue of colonialism is less important in A Passage to India, and plays a more prominent role in Friels Translations. Unlike Forster, through the colonialism of Baile Beag Friel demonstrates his belief that the core of a persons individuality is held in language, and without it their culture, relationships and names are lost.

Alternatives to Prison in Dealing with Offenders

Alternatives to Prison in Dealing with Offenders Assess the alternatives to prison in dealing with offenders We live in a society that is screaming for help. When it comes to a medical illness that a doctor can cure, he is allowed to go through great lengths to provide the best care possible. The same applies to the government who relies on the prison system to maintain law and order in dealing with offenders in order to live in a peaceful society. The idea for the use of a prison as a whole is to rehabilitate and, in most cases, restructure the way of living so that, when released, a person is better off in society than behind bars. However, there are several alternatives to prison that can be considered according to the offence committed. A well known alternative to prison is the system of fines. Fines are known as monetary sanction imposed upon a convicted offender which can vary according to where the crime was committed and the gravity of the crime. Offences which warrant a fine are classified according to the level of seriousness; the more serious offence obviously refers to a higher fine. This method is normally used for small offences committed. Fines are not considered appropriate for murder, rape, serious drug offences, aggravated robberies, and major re-offences by any member state. Any offence carrying a maximum prison sentence of at least three years in Croatia, any ‘intentional violent crime’ in Moldova, and any war crime conviction in Bosnia Herzegovina cannot be dealt with by a fine.(2010) However, this method did not prove to be quite effective since it concludes that if people could afford the fine, the punishment would not be effective, and where people could not pay the fine, it was lik ely that their family would suffer the financial consequences. Pre trial detention is the time period that an offender is incarcerated between being arrested and his trial.Detentionis only supposed to be used so as to ensure that the person will not pose a danger to other people. It undermines the chance of a fair trial and the rule of law in a number of ways. People in pre-trial detention are particularly likely to suffer violence and abuse. Without the protection of law, and isolated from their family, it is difficult to withstand such pressure. High rates of pre-trial detention are also contributing to prison overcrowding, poor prison conditions and growing the risk of torture. Pre-trial detention has a hugely damaging impact on defendants, their families and communities. Even if a person is acquitted and released, they may still have lost their home and job. They face the stigma of having been in prison when they return to the community. Unfortunately, in many countries pre-trial detention continues to be imposed systematically on those susp ected of a criminal offence without considering whether or not it is necessary, or whether less intrusive measures could be applied. A good alternative to prison is education as it has the potential to be a major driver of rehabilitation. At best, it opens prisoners’ minds to new possibilities and ways of understanding that can give them a way out of the cycle of reoffending. It can also have positive effects elsewhere, for example by raising prisoners’ skills so that they are more likely to be able to access a stable job after release, which in itself will help with reintegration. Considered more broadly, courses that encourage prisoners to think in a different light about family and other personal relationships may lead to better communication within families and a more positive, stable home environment. Education helps one broaden his mind and also helps a person to think more positively. Due to an advancing technological world, a new way of dealing with offenders has been found. The use of electronic monitoring was first applied in a criminal justice case in England and Wales in 1989, when a man was granted bail on condition that he ‘voluntarily agreed’ to have a device attached to him (Lilly and Himan, 1993:1)119 The use of electronic monitoring is becoming increasingly widespread and is now used to monitor over 10,000 offenders in Europe on any given day. Where it has been established, electronic monitoring of a curfew has become an ever-more important part of criminal justice systems and is used at various stages of criminal cases: as a condition of granting bail before trial; as a sentence in its own right; and as a condition of early release from prison. When an offender is monitored electronically, a tracking device is fitted to their ankle and a monitoring unit is positioned in the person’s house or other place of curfew. Currently, the equ ipment is based on radio frequency technology where the tag acts as a transmitter. The tag sends signals to the monitoring unit which in turn send signals to a control centre. Dick Whitfield stated that one common thread that can be observed within Europe is that the growth of EM has been ‘very largely politically driven(2007) much more than most criminal justice developments.( It means it is also politically more vulnerable, too’. This method is mostly used for small offences; this also helps to control prisons in a better way since many small offenders can stay at home with this device. It is also safe since the offender will not be able to move a long distance due to this electronic tag. A good prison policy aiming at the social reintegration of prisoners is an important factor when considering the social life of an offender after imprisonment. Even though the purpose of a prison sentence is to punish offenders and put them where they can do no harm, while preparing them for subsequent release and reintegration into society, , imprisonment does not achieve the second objective as a large number of former prisoners reoffend within five years of their release. There are many causes for this, including socialisation to prison culture, lack of family support, lack of education and vocational training and social prejudices. Spending many years in prison may be a factor in de-socialisation as it very often destroys prisoners’ ties with their families, friends and the rest of society. The chances of successful social reintegration also depend on the nature of the offence committed and the sentence served. In this connection, the possibility of alternatives to impriso nment for petty offenders might be social integration. Community service has proved to be an effective solution while dealing with offenders. Judges can sentence defendants to perform unpaid community work called community service to repay a debt to society for having committed the offense. The defendant may be required to perform community service in addition to receiving some other form of punishment, such as probation, a fine, or restitution. In 1992, Zimbabwe introduced Community Service(2004). Very quickly this alternative proved itself to be more humane, less expensive and a more efficient response to crime. An example of community service would be: Someone convicted of persistently dropping litter may be sentenced to pick up litter, or a convicted drunk driver may be required to appear before school groups to explain why drink driving is a crime and an ethical breach. This in fact makes the offender realise that whatever offence he committed was wrong. Therefore this method psychologically helps the offender to be a responsible ci tizen instead of ruining his life by going to jail. Death penalty can be considered as an option while dealing with offenders. This form of punishment has in fact been banned in many countries due to the beliefs of each of them, for example, a country might have religious beliefs about taking the life of someone as something wrong. However, it is not always the case since the offender must have done something which is not humane to deserve this form of punishment. If someone may allow himself to rape/kill/murder another person, then why should he be allowed to stay alive? This form of punishment has been a debatable one over years; yet many do not believe in it. Death penalty should actually be applicable to offenders who commit serious offences who would instead have a lifetime imprisonment as punishment. This would also increase the economic budget of a society which would have to spend unnecessary money on such offenders; this money could instead be used to reduce poverty. We certainly cannot have a specific alternative to prison in dealing with offenders, but we can surely choose the best punishment according to the offence committed. This would help to reduce the number of criminals in our society since many of the offenders stand a chance of being re-integrated in the society instead of becoming a worse person by going to jail. References 1. Loffmann.M, Morten.F. (2010)  Investigating Alternatives to Imprisonment.[online] The Quaker Council for European Affairs.  Place of publication: Europe. Available from-  http://www.qcea.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/rprt-alternatives-en-jan-2010.pdf 2. Whitfield Dick, Electronic Monitoring: Ethics, Politics and Practice, keynote presentation 10 May 2007 in the Netherlands [on-line], accessed 10 December 2007, available at: http://www.cepprobation.org/uploaded_files/pres EM 07 whitfield.pdf 3. PRI(2004) Alternatives to imprisonment, Pre-trial justice, Prison conditions, Rehabilitation and reintegration[online] . Available from: http://www.penalreform.org/resource/community-service-africa-alternative-imprisonment/

Cannibalism: A Human Atrocity Essay -- Cannibals Culture Cultural Reli

Cannibalism: A Human Atrocity "Cannibalism is morally wrong according to modern religion. In Christianity, it was used by God as an ultimate punishment for the disobedience of the Israelites during the siege of Jerusalem. Around the sixth century Before Christ, the prophet Jeremiah warned the Israelites of such a holy damnation: â€Å"I will make them eat the flesh of their sons and daughters, and they will eat one another’s flesh during the stress of the siege imposed on them by the enemies who seek their lives† (Barker, Jeremiah 19:9). Despite the warnings, the Israelites continuously disobeyed God and were rightfully punished. Jeremiah saw God as ultimate and threatened the ultimate crime as castigation for their sins. In Islam, cannibalism is considered haram, or one of the â€Å"carnal sins which constitute the most grave danger to man and environment† (Light of Islam). Cannibalism is one of man’s greatest betrayals to God. Cannibalism was a topic of ancient horror stories. In Greek mythology, â€Å"after Thyestes unwittingly ate the flesh of his own children, the Sun was so appalled that he turned back on his course and plunged the world into darkness† (Hodgkinson, 2001). Such an idea was haunting. In the Odyssey, Odysseus met the Cyclops, â€Å"a race of one-eyed human-eating giants† (Acadia). Cannibalism was nightmarish and represented ultimate power. In modern day, cannibalism has emerged in the most horrifying crimes. In 1991, Wisconsinite Jeffrey Dahmer was convicted of fifteen gruesome murders dating back to 1987. Dahmer raped young, ethnic men he met in bars across Milwaukee. He used the teenagers as experiments of his sexual fantasy by â€Å"drilling holes in the selected victim’s skull, then drib... ...ysterious disappearance of a Soylent Company executive (Fleischer). The idea of a depressing, anthropophagic apocalypse stuns moviegoers. Filmmakers evoke fear in their audiences by presenting cannibalism as doomful and inescapable. Cannibalism is immoral and remains the most horrifying phenomenon of mankind. The practice has been part of ancient and modern history, and is a sin according to modern religion. Ancient mythology depicts the practice as outlandish and sinister. Cannibalism has sparked much controversy in the Western world and has been widely feared by societies. Cannibalism is a mind-boggling phenomenon that is so primitive and taboo; it is ignored by society. Cannibalism is the most horrifying reality of the human culture, and mankind forever fears the prospect of unavoidably resorting to Soylent Blue, Soylent Yellow, or Soylent Green." Cannibalism: A Human Atrocity Essay -- Cannibals Culture Cultural Reli Cannibalism: A Human Atrocity "Cannibalism is morally wrong according to modern religion. In Christianity, it was used by God as an ultimate punishment for the disobedience of the Israelites during the siege of Jerusalem. Around the sixth century Before Christ, the prophet Jeremiah warned the Israelites of such a holy damnation: â€Å"I will make them eat the flesh of their sons and daughters, and they will eat one another’s flesh during the stress of the siege imposed on them by the enemies who seek their lives† (Barker, Jeremiah 19:9). Despite the warnings, the Israelites continuously disobeyed God and were rightfully punished. Jeremiah saw God as ultimate and threatened the ultimate crime as castigation for their sins. In Islam, cannibalism is considered haram, or one of the â€Å"carnal sins which constitute the most grave danger to man and environment† (Light of Islam). Cannibalism is one of man’s greatest betrayals to God. Cannibalism was a topic of ancient horror stories. In Greek mythology, â€Å"after Thyestes unwittingly ate the flesh of his own children, the Sun was so appalled that he turned back on his course and plunged the world into darkness† (Hodgkinson, 2001). Such an idea was haunting. In the Odyssey, Odysseus met the Cyclops, â€Å"a race of one-eyed human-eating giants† (Acadia). Cannibalism was nightmarish and represented ultimate power. In modern day, cannibalism has emerged in the most horrifying crimes. In 1991, Wisconsinite Jeffrey Dahmer was convicted of fifteen gruesome murders dating back to 1987. Dahmer raped young, ethnic men he met in bars across Milwaukee. He used the teenagers as experiments of his sexual fantasy by â€Å"drilling holes in the selected victim’s skull, then drib... ...ysterious disappearance of a Soylent Company executive (Fleischer). The idea of a depressing, anthropophagic apocalypse stuns moviegoers. Filmmakers evoke fear in their audiences by presenting cannibalism as doomful and inescapable. Cannibalism is immoral and remains the most horrifying phenomenon of mankind. The practice has been part of ancient and modern history, and is a sin according to modern religion. Ancient mythology depicts the practice as outlandish and sinister. Cannibalism has sparked much controversy in the Western world and has been widely feared by societies. Cannibalism is a mind-boggling phenomenon that is so primitive and taboo; it is ignored by society. Cannibalism is the most horrifying reality of the human culture, and mankind forever fears the prospect of unavoidably resorting to Soylent Blue, Soylent Yellow, or Soylent Green."

People who do Crazy Things are not Necessarily Crazy

Every human being faces at least one affliction in his or her life that leads him or her to behave in an unusual manner. While some people obtain support from others and learn how to handle situations correctly, others fight their battles alone and find themselves committing unthinkable acts. One taking a dispositional view would allegedly reach the conclusion that those who perform these unthinkable acts must suffer from insanity. With an opposing outlook, social psychologists observe how certain individuals react to difficult circumstances and determine why particular escapades occur as a result of distinct settings. They understand that â€Å"occasionally, these natural situations become focused into pressures so great that they can cause people to behave in ways easily classifiable as abnormal† (Aronson). Humankind should strive to fathom the depth of human behavior, and simply labeling these people as psychotic only decreases the chances of doing so. Some murder trials, after examination, will prove certain individuals to be psychotic, while other proceedings linger in the mind as an obscurity. Often times, people do not want to accept the fact that not all murderers are demented. Szasz argued that we often prefer to attribute antisocial deeds to a person’s mental illness rather than to his or her intent or choice. It is difficult to accept the idea that sane people could willingly commit atrocities† (Kleinke). Thus, it remains crucial that we recognize how grievous conditions can generate one to become an eloquently volatile being. Two defined groups of individuals that account for a number of the enraged acts suggested as being â€Å"crazy† are: vulnerable persons dealing with agonizing treatment by the public and helpless minors growing up in unpleasant homes that lack affection. Considering the backgrounds of people who act deceivingly will allow society to better understand the reasons why unwanted deeds are committed and how they can be avoided. Just a few weeks ago I watched a showing on television called â€Å"Too Young to Kill: 15 Shocking Crimes† in which Eric Smith earned the second spot on the list. Smith had a full head of red hair, a face covered by red freckles to match and a thick pair of glasses for his bad eyesight. At age thirteen, this appearance never seems to be the most popular when trying to make friends. Kids continually mocked the redheaded loner and rejected his friendship. Since no one wanted to be seen spending time with the outsider, Smith exhausted most of his time bike riding in the small town he lived in. Eric Smith represents the vulnerable individual who put up with too much overwhelming treatment from his peers. Eventually, he had to cope with his anger, and he did so in a horrifying manner. One particular morning, as Smith did his routine bike ride around the town, a four year old named Derrick Robie asked his mother if he could walk alone to a summer camp that he attended just a few blocks down. Hesitantly, she agreed, only because the neighborhood was known to be exceptionally safe. Smith, riding his bicycle to the same camp, passed Robie along the way and decided to lure him into an unseen area. Smith said he saw Robie as an easy target; he knew the young boy stood defenseless. Robie was brought into a wooded area where he was brutally beaten and smashed over the head with a large rock. Smith even sodomized young Derrick by shoving a stick up his butt hole in order to stab his heart and confirm the preschooler’s death. A defense psychiatrist tried to blame the murder on Intermittent Explosive Disorder, which literally means deadly rage and anger. It is â€Å"currently categorized in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as an impulse control disorder† (Wikipedia). However, when involved in many murder case trials, one finds that â€Å"consciously or unconsciously, people who are the subject of social science research may skew results† (Levant). Since the rare disorder is seldom seen at age thirteen, jurors demanded that Smith undergo extensive medical testing. Results proved that his brain function and hormone levels were normal and had nothing to do with his sadistic behavior. A person suffering from psychosis often loses contact with reality and contains no control of his or her actions in painstaking moments. Smith confessed that he influenced naive Derrick to follow him into the woods in order to kill him in private. He knew exactly what he was doing and entirely understood the implications of his behavior. Furthermore, throughout the initial trial, he did not once apologize for killing an innocent child. Even after the crime was over with, Smith felt little remorse. It was not until the succeeding trial over a decade later that he acknowledged his wrongdoing and asked for forgiveness. Finally, he attempted to clearly answer the question that everyone had been waiting for a response to: â€Å"why did he do it? † Smith avows that he now has morals, something that he did not previously have. He asserts that no matter how minuscule an abuse situation, it all combines together to create a much larger issue for the one being bullied. Eventually, the individual will not be able to endure anymore pain and could potentially be driven to kill. Bullying can lead to a victim craving revenge and taking out anger on someone seen as less significant. Smith himself explains this behavior in his testimony by alleging that: â€Å"it is not because they’re evil or satanic little kids; it’s because they want the abuse to stop and it’s the only way they know how to. † He is aware that his actions were not a result of some form of psychosis. Instead, it was the unpleasant situation that instigated Eric Smith to act in a crazy way. Certainly he remains guilty; though, if the conditions at his school had been different, he would not have committed that terrifying crime. An even more shocking murder case than that of Eric Smith’s is the one known as â€Å"The Beltway Sniper Attacks,† which involves the juvenile known as John Lee Malvo. Fatherless throughout life, Malvo felt a strong connection at age fourteen to a man he and his mother met, John Allen Muhammad. Malvo’s mother left him with Muhammad for a long period of time until she was able to smuggle him over to Miami with her, but only as an illegal alien. Border Patrol caught them both and brought them into jail. After about a month, young Malvo was released on bail. Naturally, he longed to be in the care of the only other person he trusted: Muhammad. John Muhammad gave Malvo purpose and he even enlisted Malvo into school as his son. When Muhammad’s ex-wife, Mildred, was granted full custody of their three daughters Muhammad went berserk. Knowing that the death of his ex-wife would gain him guardianship, he thought out a plan to murder Mildred with no one suspecting him as being involved. The arrangement consisted of a killing spree that had no connection between any of the victims. This way, when the shooting of Mildred would occur, she would just be another random victim of the unknown mass murderer. Muhammad invited Malvo to participate in the homicides and told him that they could terrorize the nation together. Malvo admired Muhammad so, of course, he accepted the proposal and murdered ten innocent people as a result. Lee Boyd Malvo, holding the number one spot on the shocking crime’s list, epitomizes the deprived minor who yearns for a father figure. According to a forensic psychiatrist, Alexander E. Obolsky, the two snipers involved in the Maryland and Virginia shootings were narcissists who planned out their attacks. Malvo and Muhammad gained an emotional high from the feeling of being in charge. This conduct does not automatically indicate that the two suffer from psychosis. Obolsky affirms, â€Å"the person [the sniper] is crazy only in the sense that he does not care about people the way typical people do† (Pustovar). In agreement, forensic psychologist Dr. Neal Dunsieth insists, â€Å"the sniper might have some particular personality traits or be predisposed to strange beliefs, but I haven’t seen a lot that points to a mental illness† (Pustovar). Counselors and social workers have spent much of their time with Malvo during his nine years in prison. As reported by Carmeta Albarus-Lindo, who has absorbed over one hundred hours of her time with Malvo, Malvo has drastically turned his life around. He himself states that he habitually struggles with feelings of shame, guilt and repentance. Knowing she was just a few people away from being killed by Malvo, Mildred claims, â€Å"that boy was a victim before he even knew it. † If shot, she would have wanted the full responsibility given to her ex-husband. She fully realizes that he took complete advantage of the boy’s insecurities. Immature Malvo was just a child with a great deal of growing up to do when he first met Muhammad. Every young person needs an adult to help guide him or her through life. When growing up, people are taught that their parents know best; adolescents typically believe that this statement holds full truth. Sadly, Malvo happened to be hooked up with Muhammad as his guardian and he followed directly behind his footsteps. Lee Boyd Malvo, which is the boy’s real name, was cruelly brainwashed by the grown-up man whom he called â€Å"Father. Calling Malvo by the name of â€Å"John Lee Malvo† symbolizes the circumstances in which John Muhammad took over Lee Boyd Malvo’s essence and independence. Simply accusing all murderers of possessing some major mental disorder will in no way explain the reasoning behind numerous homicides. When assuming that all killers are psychotic, we are fundamentally â€Å"defining insanity as a label we give to people when we cannot put ourselves ourselves in their position and understand their actions† (Rosenberg). People must realize that, often times, certain motives trigger a person to kill. It is up to society to interpret the underlying incentives that are behind countless murders. It is much like Eric Smith’s attorney recently stated: â€Å"nothing will change what happened to Derrick. But maybe something can prevent what might happen to someone else’s child. † Society must study the various causes of killings and find the deeper issues behind the killer so that future outbreaks might be stopped. This is important to do so because â€Å"people who do crazy things are not necessarily crazy† (Aronson). Any human being faced with a dreadful situation risks the chance of performing a spontaneous mistake. Works Cited http://www.cbsnews.com/news/why-did-eric-kill-30-06-2005/

Argument Structure in English Grammar

Argument Structure in English Grammar The word argument in  linguistics  does not have the same meaning as that word in common usage. When used in relation to grammar and writing, an argument is any expression or syntactic element in a sentence that serves to complete the meaning of the verb. In other words, it expands on whats being expressed by the verb and is not a term that implies controversy, as common usage does. Read about the more traditional sense of argument as a rhetorical term  here. In English, a verb typically requires from one to three arguments. The number of arguments required by a verb is the valency of that verb. In addition to the predicate and its arguments, a sentence may contain optional elements called adjuncts. According to Kenneth L. Hale and Samuel Jay Keyser in 2002s Prolegomenon to a Theory of Argument Structure,  argument structure is determined by properties of lexical items, in particular, by the syntactic configurations in which they must appear.   Examples and Observations on Argument Structure Verbs are the glue that holds clauses together. As elements that encode events, verbs are associated with a core set of ​semantic participants that take part in the event. Some of a verbs semantic participants, although not necessarily all, are mapped to roles that are syntactically relevant in the clause, such as subject or direct object; these are the arguments of the verb. For example, in John kicked the ball, John and the ball are semantic participants of the verb kick, and they are also its core syntactic arguments - the subject and the direct object, respectively. Another semantic participant, foot, is also understood, but it is not an argument; rather, it is incorporated directly into the meaning of the verb. The array of participants associated with verbs and other predicates, and how these participants are mapped to syntax, are the focus of the study of argument structure. -   Melissa Bowerman and Penelope Brown, Crosslinguistic Perspectives on Argument Structure: Implications for Learnability (2008) Arguments in Construction GrammarEach part of a complex construction has a relation to some other part of the construction in construction grammar. The relations between parts of a construction are all cast in terms of predicate-argument relations. For example, in Heather sings, Heather is the argument and sings is the predicate. The predicate-argument relation is symbolic, that is, both syntactic and semantic. Semantically a predicate is relational, that is, inherently relates to one or more additional concepts. In Heather sings, singing inherently involves a singer. The semantic arguments of a predicate are the concepts to which the predicate relates, in this case, Heather. Syntactically, a predicate requires a certain number of arguments in specific grammatical functions to it: sing requires an argument in the subject grammatical function. And syntactically, arguments are related to the predicate by a grammatical function: in this case, Heather is the subject of sings. -   Willi am Croft and D. Alan Cruse, Cognitive Linguistics  (2004) ExceptionsNote the unusual behavior of the verb rain, which neither requires nor permits any arguments at all, except for the dummy subject it,  as in Its raining. This verb arguably has a valency of zero. -   R.K. Trask, Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts  Ã‚  (2007)Conflicts Between Constructional Meaning and Lexical MeaningIn cognitive linguistics, it is generally assumed that grammatical constructions are carriers of meaning independent of the lexical items they contain. The lexical items used in a construction, especially the meanings of the verb and its argument structure, have to be fitted into the construction frame, but there are cases where a conflict between constructional meaning and lexical meaning arises. Two interpretive strategies emerge in such cases: Either the utterance is rejected as uninterpretable (semantically anomalous) or the semantic and/or syntactic conflict is resolved by a meaning shift or coercion. In general, the construction imposes its m eaning on the verb meaning. For example, the ditransitive construction in English exemplified in Mary gave Bill the ball is in semantic and syntactic conflict with the syntax and meaning of the ditransitive construction. The resolution of this conflict consists in a semantic shift: the basically transitive verb kick is construed ditransitively and coerced into the interpretation cause to receive by means of hitting with the foot. This meaning shift is possible because there are an independently motivated conceptual metonymy  means of action for action that makes the intended interpretation available to the hearer even if he or she has never before encountered the use of kick in the ditransitive construction.  Klaus-Uwe Panther and Linda L. Thornburg, The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (2007)